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COLUMBIA - Scientists are pleased with the first year of a project that puts natural biological warfare into the battle against the red imported fire ant.

Fire ant samples taken from McEntire Air National Guard Station in May indicate that a parasitic fly and a disease pathogen released last spring have survived South Carolina’s winter. That’s good news for Clemson University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Defense and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

“Red imported fire ants came here from South America pathogen- and predator-free early in the last century,” said David Williams, research entomologist with the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology. With nothing to stop them, they have spread to more than 310 million acres across the South.

The ants are a $3.8 billion problem annually for the nation. In South Carolina 1.4 million households spend well over $100 million a year for insecticides, household repairs and medical and veterinary care because of the ants. At McEntire airbase, they have caused considerable damage to electrical controls for the runway sequence flashing lights.

To balance the scales, scientists went to South America looking for some of the baggage the ants left behind: pathogens and predators. A disease, carried by the protozoan Thelohania solenopsae, and a predator, the phorid fly, are two of the natural enemies they brought back to the United States.

The disease puts fire ant queens on a starvation diet so the colony slowly diminishes in size as no new eggs are laid, and the fly deposits its eggs in the ants’ bodies where the egg turns into a larva that feeds on the ant’s brain and eventually decapitates its victim. Both the disease and the fly only affect the red imported fire ant and have been approved by the EPA for release in this country.

Mac Horton, Clemson entomologist, said that it will take two to three years for either organism to reach a population density strong enough to begin significant expansion. “Once the phorids reach that saturation point, they have the potential to expand outward as much as 10 miles a year on average,” he said. “It could be pretty exciting when we check the McEntire site next spring.”

Horton said scientists believe that the two biological agents, along with other biological controls being studied, could eventually reduce overall fire ant populations by 50-60 percent through natural means. These studies are being conducted in 11 states infested with the imported fire ants.

“We think that we can get these biological agents to high enough levels to begin showing an impact within three to four years,” said Williams. “The beauty of it is that they’re self-sustaining, not like chemical treatments which you have to apply repeatedly.”

Williams’ laboratory in Gainesville, Fla., rears about 1,500 phorid flies a week, but a new agreement among the Florida Department of Agriculture, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) promises to boost that number to 10,000-15,000 flies a week by next spring. “We’ll give the flies to universities around the South so they can rear them and spread them around,” he said.

Williams said that seven years of tests with the biological controls indicate that the disease will not infect anything but imported fire ants. The only native ants that the phorid flies attack are native fire ants, which can be a nuisance like the red imported fire ants.

Horton said that a chemical from Aventis called fipronil, which is being tested at McEntire airbase and at nearby Ft. Jackson, shows promise for controlling red imported fire ants. Material for the test was provided and applied by Laurence Mudge, field development specialist for Aventis Environmental Science.

Fipronil has just received labeling approval from the Environmental Protection Agency, and Mudge expects product marketing to begin this fall. Plots of 1/8th acre have very low fire ant populations a year after treatment. Mounds in individual plots can be counted on one hand where fipronil has been used. By contrast, in plots where fipronil has not been used, as many as 55 mounds can be found.

Williams said that the combination of fipronil and biological controls could dramatically change the way Southerners treat for red imported fire ants. “Rather than putting out two or three chemical treatments a year, you could put out one every two or three years,” he said.

Having fewer fire ants at McEntire will make Alison Hyder’s job a bit easier. She is an environmental scientist with the S.C. Army National Guard in Columbia and a member of the Guard. She assisted with the initial release of the phorid flies and supervised the release site to encourage fly survival in the early weeks, with help from Sgt. Shelvin Boykin of the Guard and Clemson Extension agent Tim Davis of Richland County.

“A major impact on the fire ant population would allow me to focus on other pest management issues,” she said. “Fire ants take up 90 percent of the time I spend on pest management right now.”

Hyder said that red imported fire ants have not only interrupted training sessions, they have knocked out vehicles and shorted out air conditioning units costing approximately $5,000 each.

Herb Bolton of the USDA’s Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES) serves as national program leader for Army Environmental Programs and as part of the evaluation team. The Department of Defense is keenly interested in the tests at McEntire and Ft. Jackson.

“We have a lot of military facilities in the Southeast, and fire ants affect a lot of groups training on the ranges. They also affect electrical boxes, people on the bases, children at child care centers, recreation areas and wildlife,” he said. “This should tell us if there is a way to reduce fire ants by integrating chemicals with biological controls.”

Funding from the EPA’s Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program, along with support from the Army Environmental Center and the Armed Forces Pest Management Board, was essential in making the multi-agency effort possible.

“Glenn Williams of EPA’s Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program provided critical support for this project,” said Horton. “EPA saw it as a way to manage an important pest while minimizing negative effects on the environment.”

HERBS MAY OFFER FARMERS A NEW "CAROLINA GOLD"

FLORENCE - Gov. Jim Hodges was on hand Monday morning to help Darlington County farmer Ben Williamson kick off his first harvest of feverfew, one of a number of medicinal herbs called nutraceuticals that could provide the state's tobacco growers with a new source of income to supplement what has been lost to reduced tobacco quotas.

Williamson has one of 10 one-acre plots planted by tobacco farmers in the Coastal Plain under the South Carolina Herb Project, which organizers hope can turn the Palmetto State into the Nutraceutical State.

“The nutraceutical industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the nation, with annual sales in excess of $15 billion,” said Hodges, noting that South Carolina has the climate and the technology in place to become a major player in the industry.

“Our state has become the east coast hub of nutraceutical activity,” said Hodges.

Promoting that goal is the National Nutraceutical Center (NNC) in Charleston, organized in 1999 as a consortium of Clemson University, the S.C. Research Authority and the Medical University of South Carolina.

“The idea is to link agriculture and medicine, helping the nutraceutical industry that is already present in the state to become more vibrant and bring new players into South Carolina,” said David Gangemi, NNC executive director.

He noted that General Nutrition Products, which recently merged with Rexall/Sundown, Perrigo, Leiner, and Triarco all have facilities in the state.

“We believe that we will soon be able to provide them with a source of standardized, certified raw material for the manufacture of high quality products superior to current imports from South America, Eastern Europe and China,” said Gangemi. “They often have problems with contamination from microbes and heavy metals.”

He would like to identify the locally grown supplements as “Carolina Gold,” which draws on the legend of Carolina Gold rice and a tobacco which wore the same label in the mid-1800s.

Clinical trials at MUSC will compare South Carolina grown feverfew to the imported product to see which is more effective in controlling the occurrence and the severity of migraine headaches. He’s betting that the Carolina Gold will be higher in active ingredient and more effective.

Gangemi said that Jim Fischer, dean of Agriculture and Forestry Research at Clemson, has been a big supporter for the NNC and the S.C. Herb Project.

“All the faculty at the Coastal Research and Education Center in Charleston have been involved,” said Gangemi. Horticulturists Richard Hassell and Bob Dufault have figured out how to grow the herbs, entomologists Merle Sheperd and Gloria McCutcheon have identified insect pests and plant pathologist Anthony Keinath has dealt with disease problems. Jim Rushing, Clemson Extension post harvest specialist, has developed recommendations for the harvest and drying of the product.

“The same barns that the growers use for tobacco can be used to dry herbs,” said Rushing. “It takes 24-30 hours, and once it’s essentially non-perishable it can be stored until the producer can find a good price.”

Williamson and the other 10 growers will harvest the feverfew again later in the summer and add a separate acre of valerian, which is used as a sedative.

“It’s good that Clemson is looking at these new crops,” said Williamson, who thinks herbs could provide a good niche market for tobacco growers if the economics work out.

Greg Hyman of Conway, tobacco grower and coordinator for the S.C. Herb Project, has been enthusiastic about nutraceuticals since being invited to an NNC board meeting by Commissioner of Agriculture Les Tindal.

“Acre for acre, this has the potential to rival tobacco for income,” said Hyman. What’s more, growers can use much of the same equipment and cultural practices used in tobacco production.

Hyman said that the feverfew is being grown with drip irrigation under black plastic, which eliminates weed pressure. “We can’t use any pesticides on the herbs,” he said.

Gangemi said that the feverfew grows well in South Carolina virtually free of insect problems. “The same metabolites that are the components believed to be effective pharmacologically in humans also seem to work to repel insects,” he said.

Gangemi is aiming to add another 15 growers next year and increase the size of individual plantings to two acres. He said the market will ultimately determine how many acres of nutraceuticals can be grown in South Carolina. “The popularity of a particular herb can change from one year to the next,” he said.

Scientist-teacher Arnold G. Eversole has received Clemson University’s prestigious 2001 Godley-Snell Award for Excellence in Agricultural Research.

Eversole is the 15^th faculty member recognized for agricultural research excellence and making outstanding contributions toward improving the lives of South Carolinians. Along with the distinction comes a check for $4,871.

Presenting the award last month, Clemson Vice President John Kelly praised Eversole. “This award recognizes individuals who conduct research relevant to the needs of South Carolinians,” said Kelly. “They have made a significant impact, not only in the advancement of scientific knowledge but also in the economic, social and policy-making arenas.”

Eversole’s 27 years at Clemson are a testament to his exemplary career in research and in the classroom. Splitting his time between the two roles has not diminished his impact in either.

His research accomplishments outshine many faculty… yet he has also maintained a dynamic academic program with heavy teaching and advising loads, both at the graduate and the undergraduate levels.

A noted expert in aquaculture and fisheries, Eversole has focused on shellfish, bivalves and fisheries management. He has authored or co-authored more than 60 refereed publications in influential national and international journals.

His work has reached an audience greater than his peers and colleagues. Understanding the importance of a land grant university’s practical mission, Eversole has applied his findings to real-world problems, enabling the fisheries industry to benefit. Based on research by Eversole and his colleagues, a comprehensive manual for culturing clams in South Carolina was published, which has become an Extension Service mainstay for clam growers. Another co-authored publication on freshwater crawfish has been in great demand worldwide.

As a teacher, Eversole has graduated 34 Master of Science candidates over the past 26 years. He has taken on more foreign students than any other faculty member. Currently Eversole has two master’s and two doctoral students. All of the students who have graduated have gone on for advanced degrees or entered the profession as fisheries biologists, aquaculturists, research scientists, resource managers, extension agents or educators.

Through his research and his work with students, Eversole has helped the aquaculture industry in real ways. “Dr. Eversole has significantly increased the stature of Clemson’s research in the eyes of the public,” said James Fischer, Dean and Director of Agriculture and Forestry Research at Clemson.

The Godley-Snell Award is named in honor of W. Cecil Godley, former director of the South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, and Absalom W. Snell, former associate director. Godley established the award in 1986. The award was increased in 1988, when Snell retired.

CLEMSON SCIENTIST STUDIES WATTLING, NATIVE PLANTSFOR EROSION CONTROL ALONG INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY

CLEMSON — A deluge washed away the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ and Will Conner's first effort to examine the use of native plants to stabilize the banks of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. It was time for Plan B: wattling, an age-old construction technique using bundles of branches to make a barrier. The signs are promising that it can do the job.

Boat wakes, tidal influences, and drainage are taking a toll on the 1,200-mile protected water route connecting Cape Cod to Key West. Responsible for maintaining the waterway for waterway traffic, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers would like to find a method to control bank erosion and shore up basins containing dredging residue. Last year, Conner, a professor of forest resources stationed at Clemson University's Belle Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science in Georgetown, joined the research project.

The goal of the study is to find out whether native plants can prevent erosion from coastal development runoff and wave action. Conventional erosion control methods consist of using rip-rap (large-rock strewn areas), walls or other structures to protect the streambank. The methods are costly and not used above the area affected by wave action. Alternatives for stabilizing the highly erodible area above the structures needed to be found. A study to examine the use of bioengineering — the use of living material for construction — was undertaken by the Corps. Conner was invited to help select the vegetation to use and to monitor the growth and survival of the plantings.

A demonstration site was selected near Carolina Forest, an 18,000-acre development not far from Myrtle Beach. Kudzu along the test slope was removed and the ground graded. Trees, shrubs and grasses were scheduled to be planted. Would the vegetation hold up? The researchers never got a chance to find out.

Thunder and lightning filled the July day after the planting began, as more than 11 inches of rain soaked Myrtle Beach. The slope eroded severely, undoing all the work. Corps workers quickly responded, stabilizing the bank with erosion mats, hay bales and fast-growing grasses.

The original project a wash-out, a bioengineering expert from the Corps' Waterways Experiment Station recommended contour wattling as an alternative. The technique uses bundles of woody plant materials laid end-to-end and left partially exposed in a trench along a slope contour. Leaving 20 percent of the bundle uncovered, the soil is packed down. If all goes well, the wood sprouts, creating a living fence to trap sediment and protect the slope from erosion.

Wattles were installed in March. Using willow, a common shrub in coastal areas, the construction crew placed bundles eight to 10 inches in diameter in shallow trenches. With wattles in place and sprouting, grasses, shrubs and trees will be planted between the contours. The work will yield data about the survival and growth of the plants, enabling the researchers to identify the plants best suited to the task.

Additionally, sites in brackish and saline areas also will be identified as possible sites along the waterway that can benefit from wattling or planting. The data will be used by other federal and state agencies seeking cost-effective erosion control methods.

CLEMSON — For the first time, a university has received a prestigious paper-industry award.

Clemson University’s Institute of Environmental Toxicology this month was honored with the Environmental Excellence Award presented by International Paper of Purchase, N.Y.

"Clemson is the first academic institution to receive this honor," wrote Richard B. Phillips, International Paper senior vice president, in a letter read at the presentation at Clemson. "This award recognizes the commitment of Dr. John Rodgers and his students on International Paper’s environmental projects over the years and celebrates our continuing partnership with the institute."

A specialist in environmental hazards and wetlands, Rodgers and his colleagues have explored the natural process for removing water pollutants and have created man-made projects to accomplish the same goal.

The research intrigued International Paper executives who sought an environmentally friendly way to remove industrial byproducts from water used in paper manufacturing. International Paper is the largest paper and forest products maker in the world. It has operations in nearly 50 nations and sells products in more than 130 countries.

"Wetlands are Mother Nature’s kidneys," said Dr. Thomas Deardorff, an International Paper biological sciences specialist who presented the award. “It’s been well researched that wetlands are an important step in cleaning up the environment. What Dr. Rodgers has done is to advance our understanding of wetlands. He has identified plants and soil characteristics that filter the pollutants — metals, chemicals, waste products — and improve water quality."

Rodgers has worked with International Paper for 10 years. As a researcher and a teacher, Rogers offers a course titled, "Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement" in which he teaches industry leaders about constructing wetlands. Through classroom discussion and field trips, Rodgers explains design considerations, including plants and planting, microbes, water flow, as well as costs and benefits.

"I am really proud of everyone involved with the program," said Rodgers. "I accept this award on behalf of the staff and students. They are truly one of the most outstanding groups at the university."

James Fischer, dean of university research for agriculture, forestry and related public outreach programs, praised the partnership and Rodgers’ achievements.

"The award honors a premier graduate program and shows off the type of academic and public-service collaboration Clemson can offer," said Helms.

Fischer added that research and knowledge-sharing are vital elements of Clemson’s mission. "Dr. Rodgers and his work are excellent models of how land-grant universities and their research and education remain relevant in a changing world."

Handing over the award — a plaque displaying a stylized bird wing and a leaf embossed on white, raw paper stock and the citation — Deardorff said he hoped that the honor would help publicize Rodgers’ efforts.

“This award recognizes a scientist who deserves greater professional and public awareness of his contributions to improving the environment now and for generations to come."

CLEMSON — S.C. peaches typically selling at wholesale for $12 per box soared to $77 recently. What’s more, wholesalers bid on the peaches sight unseen: The 2001 crop won’t be in for months.

The peach market gone haywire? No. In fact, consumers will benefit from the high prices. These were very special peaches sold at a fund-raising auction, the proceeds from which help to support research at Clemson University to improve peach production and to promote the peach industry.

“We certainly appreciate the support,” said Jim Fischer, dean of agriculture and forestry research at Clemson. “The money is a strong investment that will lead not only to scientific advances in the industry but also to increasing prosperity of the state. Making this kind of contribution through research is part of our public service mission to people of South Carolina.”

The auction held late last month was part of the 6th annual Peach Auction and Update at the Crown Plaza Resort on Hilton Head Island. Nearly 120 peach growers, packers, industry suppliers, commercial buyers, agricultural researchers and guests met to discuss the business and get a forecast for the upcoming year. Growers expect the 2001 peach crop to be about the same as last year’s 75 million pound harvest.

The industry’s real gain, however, was in research money. This year’s auction netted more than double the amount raised at previous annual meetings, with the amount doubling to $100,000, from $50, 000 last year. Clemson will get about 75 percent of the research money — the university has received about $150,000 total in the last five years — to find ways to help growers from North Carolina to Florida.

Clemson scientists have used the money for projects that have enabled growers to reduce pesticide use, prolong the lives of peach trees, improve irrigation practices and combat fruit-tree diseases.

“This year’s auction was a hands-down success, giving a big boost to the research effort,” said Chalmers Carr, council treasurer and research committee chairman. “Buyers from 17 chain stores along the East Coast, including one from Chicago, generously supported our industry. Also, Georgia Pacific helped out, donating peach packing boxes for the auction worth $15,000. We cannot thank them all enough for their support.”

CLEMSON — For South Carolina and Georgia peach growers, it was the pits. Two years ago, federal officials banned Penncap-M, a pesticide the growers relied on. The result was growers were forced to use less effective chemicals, leading to a dramatic rise of harmful insects and a decrease in peach production.

In a first-of-its-kind pact, growers in the two states and scientists at Clemson University and the University of Georgia (UGA) have joined forces to battle the bugs.

The goal is to find new ways to control the insects — mites and scale — that sap the strength from the trees and the growers’ bottom lines. Southeastern peach sales run as much as $75 million annually. The 20 commercial packers in South Carolina and Georgia, along with fewer than 100 smaller peach operations, comprise the bulk of the regional market.

South Carolina and Georgia peach councils will contribute $24,000 each over three years ($8,000 per year) to underwrite the costs for research by UGA’s Dr. Dan Horton, a nationally recognized entomologist. Clemson was selected as the research site because it had existing peach orchards at the university’s Musser Fruit Farm.

Horton’s research and collaboration with Clemson entomologist Clyde S. Gorsuch and other scientists at the two schools will help peach growers pinpoint insect growth cycles and apply pest controls precisely. Researchers also will evaluate chemicals and pesticide practices, ultimately enabling integrated pest management programs. Consequently, less spraying will be needed. It’s a win-win outcome for the public, say industry representatives: environmentally, less pesticide is used; economically, growers will be able to hold down their growing costs.

For more information, contact Chalmers Carr (803/685-5381) of the S.C. Peach Growers Council; Duke Lane Jr. (912/825-3592) of the Georgia Peach Council; or Bob Tyson (706/542-1060) of the Ga. Cooperative Extension Service.

PHILOSOPHER POSES QUESTIONS TO LEADERS SETTING CLEMSON’S LAND-GRANT FUTURE

CLEMSON — Who are we? Where are we going? Institutions, like individuals, seek to explore their roles in life. Bill Maker, chairman of Clemson University’s philosophy department, challenged Public Service Activities Advisory Board members to rethink the university’s land-grant role in the future.

Maker was invited to speak to the board, which is meeting Sunday through Tuesday at Clemson’s Hendrix Student Center. “As Clemson takes on its leadership role for the future, we feel it is important to look out to the year 2030 and explore what the university’s role should be,” said board chairman Ron Counton of Greer.

The philosopher felt a bit like a vegetarian at a barbecue. “It’s a bit unusual for a philosopher to be invited to a gathering like this,” said Maker. “We are not thought of as being very practical.”

The audience, however, did find Maker’s remarks both pertinent and provocative. “Clemson needs to get out of the Ivory Tower of academia and more engaged in the marketplace,” Maker said. He added the university must not only provide the means — the technology and science — enabling the good life but also spark conversation about what the values of life should be— the common good, civic virtue, private and corporate responsibility. The goal is build public dialog on challenging issues — land use, private property, genetically modified crops, cloning — that are vital to the future of South Carolina.

“Clemson can create a model for the future,” said environmentalist Yancey McLeod of Eastover. “We have become a world of specialists and have narrowed our views, missing the larger web of connections.”

Jim Fischer, dean of public service research at Clemson, noted that technology drives change and that in turn promotes more fragmentation as people focus on ever-increasing specializations.

“Clemson can become a unifying force,” said Maker. “As a land-grant university, we have an obligation to provide information and techniques to help people live better lives.” Doing so requires the university to work collaboratively, said Maker, breaking down walls on campus, enabling departments to work together and expanding Clemson’s public service role across campus.

The need to provide information is vital to productive discussion. Some in the group raised a concern if Clemson could be counted on to be unbiased.

“Can we remain unbiased if industry pays for research?” said John Longof Newberry.

The issue is one Clemson will need to confront, said Maker. “Scientific freedom versus proprietary rights of private companies will pose a challenge.”

Tuesday, the advisory board will issue its recommendations about the public service activities’ role in the new millennium to John Kelly, vice president of public service and agriculture.

CLEMSON — Mark S. Henry, a Clemson University agricultural and applied economics professor, has received the 2000 David E. Boyce Award for Exceptional Service to Regional Science presented by the North American Regional Science Council. Henry also serves as co-coordinator of the Regional Economic Development Research Laboratory, a think-tank dedicated to enhancing rural economic development throughout the South that is based at Clemson University.

Henry has provided more than 20 years of service to the Southern Regional Science Association and to regional and national economic development research centers and public service organizations. He has served on the association’s executive council and on the board of editors for the association’s “Review of Regional Studies,” as well as holding various leadership positions, including president and program chair.

He has served as manager for the review panel of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National Research Initiative and on task forces for the National Rural Studies Committee, Rural Policy Research Institute, Southern Rural Development Center, National Coastal Resources Research Institute and the Kellogg Foundation’s Pathways from Poverty Project.

In addition, Henry has served as a visiting scholar-researcher at the USDA Economic Research Service, at the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, at the Research Center of Bornhold, Denmark, and at INRA-ENESAD, Dijon, France.

Henry’s service to the regional science community is balanced with an active research program focused on economic impact analysis, rural economic development policy, rural-urban linkages, and poverty and income distribution issues.

CLEMSON — Metro Charleston’s sprawl looms to grow worse than Atlanta’s, according to Clemson University researchers. One predictor, especially, has triggered concern for the future quality of life in an area brimming with newdevelopment.

“Population density — the number of people living per acre — is notably low in high-growth areas in Berkeley, Charleston and Dorchester counties,” said Jeffrey Allen, director of the S.C. Water Resources Center at Clemson’s Strom Thurmond Institute (STI). “Declining population density is caused by a more dispersed settlement pattern, and that typically leads to a greater loss of rural land. The trend toward declining density, however, is not irreversible. Abiding by comprehensive land-use plans can dramatically help deter sprawl.”

Using a computer-generated growth model, STI researchers compared projected development patterns through 2015 with the comprehensive plans developed by the local governments. The results showed a mismatch. Based on the STI growth model, the region’s urbanized area would grow to 386,913 acres by 2015, exceeding the comprehensive development plan projection of 323,704 acres. The 63,209-acre difference — an area nearly the size of the city of Charleston — could bring the density figure down to 2.12 persons per acre, compared to the current 3.34 persons per acre.

“Ironically, Charleston’s current population density — 3.34 persons an acre — already is lower than Atlanta’s 4.04 number, even though Atlanta is far better known for its sprawling growth,” said Allen. “The trend toward having fewer people living per acre needs to be halted, even reversed in some areas.”

State law requires local governments to create comprehensive plans that contain a map identifying land uses, as well as identifying areas that should grow and those that should remain undeveloped. The plan and map chart the future for an area, pointing the way for new roads and sewers, schools and shopping centers. They also earmark areas that should be protected from growth, including farms, fields and forests.

Political realities often muddy land-use ideals. From a conservation perspective, higher density — more people per acre — means rural land will be saved. From a lifestyle viewpoint, however, density is perceived as a negative. Local government officials tend to bow to pressure from developers and residents, enacting suburban zoning regulations prohibiting more than two or three houses per acre.

“Comprehensive plans are just that — plans,” said Allen. “They have little effect if the local government does not adopt zoning and spending policies to implement the plan. The mismatch between officially sanctioned growth and the predicted urban footprint illustrates the need for implementing such programs and policies.”